EDUCATIONAL HELPS ...

Options After High School For Youth With Disabilities

• A publication of the National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities
• NICHCY Transition Summary #TS7
• September 1991 Resources updated, 1994
• Approx. 42 pages when printed.
• PDF version

In This Issue...

• Employment Options
  
• Adult Systems
  
• Reasonable Accommodation
  
• The Importance of Keeping Records
  
• Work Incentives in SSI and SSDI
  
• Postsecondary Education and Training Opportunities
  
• Other Avenues to Employment
  
• Taking Action
  
• In Conclusion
  
• FYI: Information Resources
  
• Bibliography
  
• Organizations
  

Note, October 1997--

Dear Reader:

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) has been amended! This is the law that guides how schools deliver special education and related services to students with disabilities.

You will be reading about the IDEA in this publication. This note is to alert you that, while much of the law remains essentially the same, some aspects have changed as a result of the amendments just passed in June, 1997. Bear this in mind as you read about the IDEA in this publication.

NICHCY prides itself on providing accurate, up-to-date information on disability issues, so we are working hard to update all of our publications to reflect the newest version of the law. Please bear with us while we tackle this enormous job!

If you have questions about the new amendments, please feel free to contact NICHCY.

One of the most critical turning points in the lives of all young people is the transition from public school to the world of postsecondary education, employment, and life as an adult. Developing independence, exploring one's talents and interests, deciding upon a career path, and pursuing either employment or additional schooling are just some of the challenges that youth in transition face.

For youth with disabilities, there are often many additional questions and challenges. When young people with disabilities leave public school, their entitlement to special education and related services ends. They -- and their families -- leave behind a relatively organized service provider system and become solely responsible for identifying, pursuing, obtaining, and coordinating the educational training and services needed for them to prepare for employment and independent living. All too often, however, families have no idea where to begin their search for postsecondary options and services. The young person may need more education in order to become employed, and many decisions arise from this need. What type of education best suits the person's interests and capabilities, where such training is available, what eligibility requirements exist, how to finance the education, and where to secure a job in the field of interest are just some of the issues the youth with a disability and the family must consider. Issues of independence arise, too, as young people with disabilities face decisions about other aspects of adult life, such as where they will live, how they will spend their leisure time, and how to go about developing a strong social and interpersonal network.

This TRANSITION SUMMARY, then, has been developed to help youth with disabilities, their families, and the professionals who work with them meet the challenge that transition from the secondary school system brings. Due to space limitations, this TRANSITION SUMMARY focuses on only one aspect of the transition to adult life -- namely, identifying, pursuing, and obtaining postsecondary training and employment. Information and resources are available to help young people with disabilities develop and execute effective transition plans. As young people with disabilities explore their postsecondary options, they will need the skills of self-determination and self-advocacy, for these skills will help them choose a career path that interests them, as well as speak out for and obtain the services and accommodations that will help them to succeed in their endeavors. This TRANSITION SUMMARY discusses how families and professionals can help young people with disabilities develop these important self-determination and self-advocacy skills from childhood on through transition to adulthood, and provides concrete examples drawn from daily family life. Readers are also introduced to the adult service systems that can assist individuals with disabilities who are seeking postsecondary training, employment, and services such as transportation assistance, adaptive equipment, or medical care. Employment options are also explored, as well as the various types of educational institutions that youth with disabilities can attend to prepare for employment. Important concerns such as reasonable accommodation, accessibility, and the need to keep records are discussed as well. This issue concludes with a listing of resources that families and professionals can use to obtain more information about the areas of interest to them.

This TRANSITION SUMMARY is a joint publication of NICHCY and the HEATH Resource Center. By producing a joint publication, we hope to reach a wide audience of individuals with disabilities who are making the transition to life after high school. This is a critical time for all young adults, and we hope that the information in this issue is helpful. Please let us know.

Employment Options

A major transition issue for young people with disabilities is securing and maintaining employment. The disturbing truth is that two-thirds of the people with disabilities in our society are not working (Harris & Associates, 1986). Reasons for this high unemployment rate include such factors as: the nature of the disability an individual has, lack of appropriate education, employer perceptions and attitudes, lack of social skills, transportation, economic and benefit disincentives, family beliefs and concerns, lack of appropriate jobs, and lack of needed devices or aids to help in job performance (Kiernan & Brinkman, 1985; Harris & Associates, 1986). Many of these factors can be and are being addressed by training programs, adult service providers, and technological advances. There is also a growing awareness that self-sufficiency, employment, and independent or semi-independent living are attainable and desirable goals for individuals with disabilities. Indeed, research shows that working makes an enormous qualitative difference in the lives of people with disabilities, in terms of their self-perception and satisfaction with life (Harris & Associates, 1986).

What employment options, then, are available to young people with disabilities who are making the transition from school to the world of work? Basically, there are three options: competitive employment, supported employment, and sheltered employment. Which employment option is most suitable for an individual will depend largely on the nature and severity of his or her disability and the amount of support needed by the person to maintain employment.

Competitive Employment

Competitive employment can be defined as full-time or part-time jobs in the open labor market with competitive wages and responsibilities. Competitive employment is employment that the individual maintains with no more outside support than a co-worker without a disability would receive. The key word here is maintains. Although a student may make use of transition services available in the community in order to prepare for and find competitive employment, these services are temporary. Once the individual has the job, support from outside agencies is terminated, and the individual maintains, or does, the job on his or her own.

The types of jobs that are normally considered competitive employment are as vast in number as they are varied. Waitresses, service station attendants, clerks, secretaries, mechanics, professional drivers, factory workers, computer programmers and managers, teacher's aides, teachers, health care workers, lawyers, scientists, and engineers are just some examples of people who are competitively employed. As can be seen by these examples, the amount of training an individual needs varies considerably from job to job. Some jobs are entry-level and require little or no specific training. Other jobs require vocational preparation and training, while still others require extensive academic schooling.

The traditional route to obtaining competitive employment is that upon leaving the public school system, a vocational training program, or higher education, job seekers look in the Help Wanted ads in the newspaper or use contacts to locate a job opening. Interviews are scheduled, resumes are sometimes presented, and, with luck and an adequate background of vocational, academic, and/or social skills, competitive employment is obtained.

Youth with disabilities sometimes follow this traditional path, but more often they need assistance in securing a competitive job. The amount of assistance a youth needs may vary, depending upon his or her disability, the particular career in which he or she is interested, the amount of training the job requires, and the type of training the youth obtained during the public school years or thereafter. Many youth with disabilities leave secondary school with sufficient academic or vocational preparation to maintain competitive employment without help from an outside agency. These individuals may only need assistance from a human services agency in order to locate an appropriate job. Other students may exit school without the training necessary to secure and maintain competitive employment. These students generally need support from a human services agency in order to receive adequate vocational skills training or to explore academic opportunities that will prepare them for the career of their choice.

Recently, a training model known as transitional employment has been useful in helping many youth and adults with disabilities prepare for competitive employment. "Transitional employment is designed for those who cannot enter on their own into competitive work, but who are able to handle an independent, full-wage job after training and support" (Norman, 1987, p. 7). In demonstration projects funded by the U.S. Department of Labor, transitional employment consists of three phases. In Phase 1 participants receive initial training and support services in a low-stress work environment. Phase 2 involves a period of on-the-job training in local firms and agencies, "emphasizing job performance and work stress to resemble the demands faced by nondisabled workers in the same types of jobs" (Kerachsky & Thornton, 1987, p. 516). Phase 3 consists of up to six months of follow-up services. Among those who have benefited from transitional employment are individuals who are mentally retarded, individuals with developmental disabilities and learning disabilities, and persons with hearing impairments. Through the transitional employment model, workers have received the training, supervision, and support services they needed to prepare for and secure competitive employment.

The important thing to remember about competitive employment, however, is that the assistance and supports offered by a human services agency are time-limited in nature and end once the student has secured employment.

Supported Employment

Supported employment is competitive work in integrated settings for individuals with severe disabilities. It is specifically targeted for individuals who, because of their severe disability, need ongoing support services to perform such work (U.S. Congress, 1986 Amendments to the Rehabilitation Act). The provision of ongoing support, in fact, is one of the features of supported employment which distinguishes it from other services. Support is provided to enable the individual with a disability to learn and maintain the job, and continues to be provided as long as the individual holds the job. Thus, supported employment offers individuals with severe mental or physical disabilities the opportunity to earn wages in job sites in their community while working alongside their nondisabled peers.

There are four models of supported employment. Individual placement is one in which individuals receive intensive one-on-one job training from a job coach until they demonstrate proficiency at the job. Once this occurs, training and support from the job coach are gradually reduced, although the job coach will continue to provide follow-up services to the individual and the employer. In the enclave model, several individuals with disabilities are trained and supervised in a small group and work alongside nondisabled employees. A trained human services professional or an employee of the host company provides continuous, long-term supervision at the job site (Wehman, Moon, Everson, Wood, & Barcus, 1988). The mobile crew model is one in which four to six individuals with severe disabilities move from business to business providing a variety of services as a team. The mobile crew is accompanied by a training supervisor or manager who is responsible for training and supervising members and for seeing that the work is completed according to required standards. Janitorial services and groundskeeping are examples of the types of work done by mobile crews. In the benchwork model, eight to fifteen workers with disabilities perform contract work procured from electronics firms and related industries. A small number of highly qualified staff provides intensive training and supervision in the work tasks and, additionally, helps workers to develop appropriate work behaviors.

It is important to remember that these are generalizations about the types of models of supported employment. Many communities have agencies providing innovative models of supported employment which combine elements of the different models described above.

Sheltered Employment

Sheltered employment options are ones in which individuals with disabilities work in a self-contained unit, without integration with nondisabled workers. Sheltered employment options typically range along a continuum from adult day programs to work activity centers to sheltered workshops. In adult day programs, individuals generally receive training in daily living skills, social skills, recreational skills, and prevocational skills. Work activity centers offer individuals similar training but may also include training in vocational skills. In sheltered workshops, individuals perform subcontracted tasks such as sewing, packaging, collating, or machine assembly and are usually paid on a piece-rate basis. Typically, people do not advance to the workshop until they have demonstrated mastery in the level(s) below. Sheltered employment options are generally supported by federal and/or state funds and are operated by private, non-profit corporations governed by a volunteer board of directors.

Traditionally, sheltered employment options were thought to be the only ones available for individuals with severe disabilities. There is now evidence from supported employment models that individuals with severe disabilities can work in community settings if provided with adequate supports ("Supported Employment", 1989). With the emergence of supported employment, many facilities have begun to modify their sheltered employment programs to provide workers with integrated options (Wehman & Moon, 1988). Advocates of this trend away from sheltered employment point to the advantages of supported employment, which include higher wages, more meaningful work, and integration with workers who do not have disabilities.

References

Harris, L., & Associates, Inc. (1986). The ICD survey of disabled Americans: Bringing disabled Americans into the mainstream. New York: Author.

Kerachsky, S., & Thornton, C. (1987). Findings from the STETS transitional employment demonstration. Exceptional Children, 53 (6), 515-521.

Kiernan, W.E., & Brinkman, L. (1985). Barriers to employment for adults with developmental disabilities. In W.E. Kiernan & J.A. Stark (Eds.), Employment options for adults with developmental disabilities (pp. 160-174). Logan: Utah State University Affiliated Facility.

Norman, A. (1987). Job path. New York: Vera Institute of Justice.

Supported employment expands opportunities for persons with severe disabilities. (1989, Summer). OSERS News in Print, II (2), p. 5.

U.S. Congress, Public Law 99-506, 1986 Amendments to the Rehabilitation Act.

Wehman, P., & Moon, M.S. (1988). Vocational rehabilitation and supported employment. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. (Available from Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company, P.O. Box 10624, Baltimore, MD 21285-0624.)

Wehman, P., Moon, M.S., Everson, J.M., Wood, W., & Barcus, J.M. (1988). Transition from school to work: New challenges for youth with severe disabilities. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. (Available from Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company, P.O. Box 10624, Baltimore, MD 21285-0624.)

Adult Systems

When young people with disabilities exit the public school system, they -- and their families -- must learn how to pursue and coordinate many needed educational and related services for themselves. Up to this point, students with special needs have received needed services primarily from one service provider, namely the school system. These services are generally provided in a relatively organized fashion, with school personnel serving as coordinators or case managers for the educational and vocational programs of students with disabilities. Upon exiting the school system, however, students become responsible for managing their own educational and/or vocational programs. They and their families are faced with a baffling array of service providers and differing eligibility requirements. Moreover, the agencies and organizations that can help youth with disabilities make the transition from school to work are no longer conveniently located under one roof, but may be spread out all over the town, county, or state.

Needless to say, assuming total responsibility for locating and coordinating needed services may be a new and challenging task to many youth with disabilities and their families. This article, then, gives an overview of the two adult systems most likely to be of assistance to youth with disabilities. These are the Vocational Rehabilitation System and the Social Security Administration.

Vocational Rehabilitation (VR)

VR is the nationwide federal-state program for assisting eligible people with disabilities to define a suitable employment goal and become employed. Each state capital has a central VR agency, and there are local offices throughout the state that can be located in the telephone directory under the STATE listing for Rehabilitative Services or Vocational Rehabilitation Services. In some states, there is only one VR office that serves all eligible persons with disabilities. Other states may maintain two offices, one which serves persons with visual impairments and another which serves all other individuals with disabilities.

The VR is an excellent place for a youth with a disability to begin exploring available training and support service options. Typically, a person begins his or her interaction with VR by completing an application form and being assigned to a VR counselor. Generally, the counselor will ask the individual to have a medical examination or provide reports of such an examination if a recent one exists. This step is necessary so that the counselor can determine whether or not the applicant is eligible to receive services. It is important to know that the Vocational Rehabilitation System is an eligibility program, not an entitlement program. Eligibility for services is determined on the basis of three criteria: The person must have a physical or mental disability; the disability must create or cause a substantial obstacle to employment; and a reasonable expectation must exist that the provision of vocational rehabilitation services can make the individual employable.

Section 103(a) of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended by P.L. 99-506, enumerates a wide array of vocational rehabilitation services that can be provided to eligible individuals. These services are listed in Table 1, along with a brief description of each service. Although "the scope of services provided by local state offices of the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation...varies in both quantity and quality," for those individuals who are found to be eligible for services, "there is usually a variety of opportunities available" (Skyer & Skyer, 1986, p. 2).

The extensive nature of the services that VR can provide to an individual inevitably raises the question of how these services are funded. How much fiscal responsibility does the individual receiving the services have? The answer is: It varies from individual to individual. VR must pay for all activities needed to determine an applicant's eligibility, including the medical examination. However, when an individual is determined to be eligible, the cost of the services provided thereafter may or may not be fully assumed by VR. The individual with the disability must supply income and expense information to the VR. Depending upon the person's financial status, VR may pay for all services or may require that the person assume a portion of the costs.

Clearly, VR can be of considerable help to young people with disabilities who are exiting school and who are eligible to receive services. An important part of the process is the development of an Individualized Written Rehabilitation Program (IWRP). This document is similar to the IEP developed during the public school years for students with disabilities. As part of the IWRP, long-range and short-term goals for rehabilitation and employment are determined and serve as a guide for the provision and monitoring of services. However, it is important to note that rehabilitative services "are time-limited in duration, as opposed to long-term services typically provided or puchased by departments of mental retardation or mental health" (Everson & Moon, 1987, p. 90). VR services stop when the client is successfully rehabilitated or it is determined that the goal established by the VR counselor and the individual with a disability cannot be achieved.

Table 1

Social Security Administration

The Social Security Administration (SSA) directs two programs that can be of financial benefit to eligible individuals with disabilities throughout the transition process. These programs are: the Supplemental Security Insurance (SSI) program and the Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) program. Because the Social Security Administration considers many variables before determining if a person is eligible for SSI or SSDI benefits, the discussion here is intended only as an overview to the benefits of these programs. Ultimately, an individual's eligibility can only be determined by contacting the Social Security Administration and filing an application.

The SSI program is targeted for individuals who are both (a) in financial need, and (b) blind or disabled. The evaluation process to determine eligibility varies depending upon whether the applicant is under the age of 18, or over. Recently, there have been many significant changes in how SSA determines the SSI eligibility of individuals under the age of 18. These changes are expected to make it easier for children and youth with disabilities to qualify for SSI benefits (Mental Health Law Project, 1991). More information about these changes and the specific evaluation process the SSA now uses for individuals under the age of 18 is available by contacting the Social Security Administration directly.

When a child reaches the age of 18, the Social Security Administration no longer considers the income and resources of parents when determining if the youth is eligible for benefits. Under the SSI program, individuals over the age of 18 are eligible to receive monthly payments if they: (a) have little or no income or resources such as savings accounts; (b) are considered medically disabled or blind; and (c) do not work or earn less than a certain amount, defined by the Social Security Administration as Substantial Gainful Activity (SGA). Individuals who are eligible to receive SSI benefits are eligible in most states for food stamps and Medicaid benefits as well (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1990, July).

The SSDI program is a bit different, because it considers the employment status of the applicant's parents. "SSDI benefits are paid to persons who become disabled before the age of 22 if at least one of their parents had worked a certain amount of time under Social Security but is now disabled, retired, and/or deceased" (National Association of State Directors of Special Education, 1990, p. 9). As with SSI, eligibility for SSDI generally makes an individual eligible for food stamps and Medicaid benefits as well.

In the past, the amount of benefits an individual might receive from either or both of these programs would be substantially reduced or even eliminated by income earned at a job (Krebs, 1990). Recent legislation, however, has made major changes in both the SSI and SSDI programs to encourage people receiving these benefits to try to work and become independent. These changes are called work incentives, because they make it possible for individuals with disabilities to work without an immediate loss of benefits. To find out more about the work incentives, refer to the article entitled "Work Incentives in SSI and SSDI."

References

Everson, J.M., & Moon, M.S. (1987). Transition services for young adults with severe disabilities: Defining professional and parental roles and responsibilities. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 12 (2), 87-95.

Krebs, D. (1990, December). How to get a job and keep your benefits. TASH Newsletter, p. 9.

Mental Health Law Project. (1991). SSI: New opportunities for children with disabilities. Washington, DC: Author.

National Association of State Directors of Special Education. (1990). Life after school for children with disabilities: Answers to questions parents ask about employment and finanical aid. Washington, DC: Author. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 329 072)

Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 29 U.S.C. Section 103(a).

Skyer, R., & Skyer, G. (1986). What do you do after high school? A nationwide guide to residential, vocational, social, and collegiate programs service the adolescent, young adult, and adult with learning disabilities. Rockaway Park, NY: Skyer Consultation Center, Inc.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Social Security Administration. (1990, July). SSI (Social Security Administration Publication Number 05-11000). Baltimore, MD: Author. (Available from Department of Health and Human Services, SSA, Baltimore, MD 21235.)

Sources of Information

For more information about the vocational rehabilitation process: Call your State Office of Vocational Rehabilitation and make an appointment to talk with a rehabilitation counselor. You can also contact HEATH for a free copy of Vocational Rehabilitation Services: A Postsecondary Student Consumer's Guide (1989).

For specific information about the benefits provided through SSDI and SSI: Contact your local Social Security Office (listed in the telephone directory under Social Security Administration) and request a copy of the publications addressing SSI and SSDI. Single copies are free. You can also contact the SSA through its toll-free number: 1-800-234-5772 (voice) or 1-800-325-0778 (TDD) which is available 24 hours a day. Due to the volume of inquiries that SSA receives, it is best to call early in the morning or late in the afternoon. SSA also recommends calling later in the week.

For a discussion of recent changes to SSI eligibility criteria for individuals under the age of 18, you can contact the Judge David L. Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law, 1101 Fifteenth Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20005, (202) 467-5730.

Another source of information about SSI and SSDI is the Clearinghouse on Disability Information at the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, Room 3132, Switzer Building, 330 C Street S.W., Washington, DC 20202-2524. Telephone: (202) 205-8241 (V/TT). Ask for the Pocket Guide to Federal Help for Individuals with Disabilities (1994).

Notice about Children Who Were Denied Supplemental Security Insurance (SSI) Disability Benefits Between January 1, 1980, and February 27, 1990

You may be due SSI payments because of a court case called Zebley. The Zebley case says that you can have the Social Security Administration review your case. If you are found eligible, you may be entitled to payments owed because of the past denial.

If you're the parent or caregiver of a child who was denied SSI benefits between January 1, 1980, and February 27, 1990, you should have received a notice from Social Security. The notice tells you about having your child's SSI case looked at again.

To have your child's claim reviewed under the new rules, you should promptly complete and mail back the reply form that comes with the notice.

If you have a problem responding to the notice, have questions about it, or have not received it, contact your nearest Social Security office for assistance.

(Reprinted from the Social Security Administration's Social Security Courier (1991, July/August), p. 5.)

Reasonable Accommodation

Reasonable accommodation is an issue of importance to persons with disabilities who are pursuing either postsecondary education or employment. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and, more recently, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) require employers to make reasonable accommodation to the needs of qualified applicants or employees with disabilities, so as to enable these individuals to perform essential job functions. Reasonable accommodation, as defined by the ADA (P.L. 101-336), includes:

1. making existing facilities used by employees readily accessible to and usable by individuals with disabilities; and
   
   
2. job restructuring, part-time or modified work schedules, reassignment to a vacant position, acquisition or modification of equipment or devices, appropriate adjustment or modifications of examinations, training materials or policies, the provision of qualified readers or interpreters, and other similar accommodations for individuals with disabilities. (42 U.S.C. 12111, Section 101[9])
   
   

Thus, adaptations fall into two categories: (a) structural, and (b) modification of the job itself.

Structural accommodations involve making buildings accessible to individuals with disabilities. Typical structural accommodations include the availability of ramps, elevators, and convenient parking, modification of doorways and restroom facilities, and removal or modification of architectural barriers. For persons whose disabilities make accessibility to buildings an important consideration, it is useful to know that the Architectural Barriers Act of 1968 (P.L. 90-480) requires that all public facilities built or substantially renovated since 1968 provide barrier-free access to individuals with disabilities. Under the ADA, newly constructed commercial facilities, such as office buildings, must also be accessible. Information about accessibility and federal laws is available by writing to your state's Governor's Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities. The address of the Committee in your state can be obtained by consulting your local telephone directory or by contacting the President's Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities, 1331 F Street N.W., Washington, DC 20004-1107, (202) 376-6200 (V); (202) 376-6205 (TT). It is also a good idea to contact or visit the buildings themselves to see first-hand whether or not a site is accessible.

Modification of the job includes adaptations an employer makes to (a) the equipment an individual must use to do the job, (b) the work area, or (c) to an individual's work schedule. Examples of modifying equipment include lowering work benches, substituting arm controls for foot controls on machinery, or providing TTY or TDD equipment for deaf workers. Many specially designed aids, tools, machines, and furniture are currently available to accommodate workers with specific disabilities. Adjusting the work space, another job modification, can range from easing a worker's access to the job (e.g., moving his or her office to a ground floor) to identifying and eliminating hazards to worker safety, such as inappropriately placed file cabinets or half-open doors. Making work space adjustments is generally a straightforward process best accomplished by having the individual with the disability work cooperatively with the employer to analyze the work site. Making adjustments to an individual's work schedule, a third type of job modification, can range from having flexibility about working hours, to permitting rest periods, to allowing the individual with the disability to work at home. This type of accommodation is arrived at through open discussion of the specific conditions a disability imposes on an individual and how an employer can help the person perform the job more easily (U.S. Department of Justice, 1992).

Concern with reasonable accommodation has also become a part of planning done at educational institutions, to the benefit of persons with disabilities seeking access to vocational training or an academic education (Sarkees & Scott, 1986). The 1973 Rehabilitation Act, P.L. 93-112, specifies that individuals with disabilities cannot be excluded, because of inaccessible facilities, from any program or activity which receives federal funds. As a result, vocational schools, training institutes, and colleges are examining their physical environments and making the kinds of structural adaptations described above. Many institutions are also scrutinizing their flexibility about how work is completed and are making modifications to the educational program or training equipment, as indicated by the nature of their students' disabilities. Many educational institutions have an Office of Special Services that can provide information about the types of disability-related support services the institution makes available to students with special needs.

Individuals with disabilities who are participating in educational programs to acquire job skills or those who are entering employment should be aware that reasonable accommodations -- ones that do not place undue hardship or expense on the provider -- are generally easy and inexpensive for employers and institutes to make (Guiliano, 1987). Moreover, the accommodations often go a long way to helping individuals with disabilities succeed in learning or employment. An abundance of information is available to employers and training institutes about how to make practical accommodations for individuals with particular disabilities. Individuals interested in specific information about accessibility requirements and standards applicable under the ADA can call: (800)-USA-ABLE. This toll-free number has been established by the U.S. Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board. Another useful resource is the Job Accommodation Network (JAN), operated by the President's Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities. JAN can be contacted, toll-free, at (800) 526-7234, for information about the kinds of accommodations required by law and those which business and industry have successfully used to integrate their employees with disabilities into their companies.

References

Americans with Disabilities Act, 42 U.S.C. 12111, Section 101(9).

Guiliano, J. (1987). What is reasonable accommodation? Careers and the Handicapped, 3 (1), 30.

Sarkees, M.D., & Scott, J.L. (1985). Vocational special needs (2nd edition). Homewood, IL: American Technical Publishers, Inc. (Available from American Technical Publishers, Inc., 1155 W. 175th Street, Homewood, IL 60430. Telephone: 1-800-323-3471.)

U.S. Congress, Public Law 90-480, The Architectural Barriers Act of 1968.

U.S. Congress, Public Law 93-112, The Rehabilitation Act of 1973.

U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division. (1992). The American with Disabilities Act: Questions and answers. Washington, DC: Author.

The Importance Of Keeping Records

As has been mentioned, parents and students often find working with adult service providers a confusing and time-consuming process. Many organizations may have to be contacted before an effective transition plan can be developed and implemented. Whenever possible, this process should begin during a student's high school years and involve the special education staff, who can be of considerable assistance. It is also extremely important for parents and students to develop a recordkeeping system to keep track of which organizations have been contacted and what information has been gathered. Here are some suggestions for developing such a system.

Before the youth leaves the public school system, he or she should obtain a record of all high school transcripts, evaluations, tests, and therapist reports. These records may be needed when coordinating adult services. Since schools do not keep student records forever, it is important to have your own copies.

Also keep records of any on-the-job training reports or other work experiences the youth in transition has had. Request letters of recommendations from any previous employers and keep these letters in your files.

Keep accurate notes of all telephone conversations you have with agency personnel. Don't try to rely on your memory.

An example of the type of information you might record is presented in Figure 1. You can easily type the heading on a sheet of paper and photocopy that sheet innumerable times.

Many people record each conversation on a separate piece of paper. They also file conversations with one agency together, such as putting all records of contact with VR in one file folder or three-ring notebook.

Have file folders handy to hold any brochures or other handouts you are given by an organization. Organize the folders alphabetically, for easy reference.

Always keep a copy of any letters you write to an agency. Keep all letters they write to you.

Periodically go through your records. This will refresh your memory about organizations you still need to call or issues that are pending.

Figure 1

An Example Sheet for Recordkeeping

Name of Program:

Date Contacted:

Contact Person:

Services available, eligibility requirements, referrals, other notes:

Work Incentives In SSI And SSDI

The Social Security Administration offers two programs that can be of benefit to individuals with disabilities. As was described earlier in this TRANSITION SUMMARY (see the article entitled "Adult Systems"), the SSI and SSDI programs offer financial and medical benefits to eligible persons with disabilities. In addition, both programs have work incentives that make it possible for individuals with disabilities to work without an immediate loss of benefits. Here is how they work.

SSI Program Work Incentives. There are a number of work incentives under the SSI program. These include:

Section 1619a. Provisions under Section 1619a of the Employment Opportunities for Disabled Americans Act allow people to continue to receive special SSI monthly cash payments after their earned income is at the amount designated as the Substantial Gainful Activity (SGA) level (currently $500 a month). The Social Security Administration uses a formula to determine the amount of SSI benefits an individual with a disability will continue to receive. In most cases, people remain eligible for Medicaid and state-funded attendant care benefits (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1990, October).

Section 1619b. Provisions under Section 1619b of the Employment Opportunities for Disabled Americans Act allow most individuals to keep Medicaid benefits after they stop receiving monthly SSI checks. The law requires that a person's medical condition be reviewed within 12 months of entering the 1619b status to ensure the person still has a disability. A person must apply for these benefits before his or her regular SSI benefits actually stop.

Impairment-related work expenses (IRWE). IRWEs are the costs for services or materials a person needs to be able to work. Social Security deducts these costs from an individual's SGA when calculating how much money that person should receive in his or her monthly check. Services and materials can be deducted as IRWEs only if the person pays for the costs himself and receives no reimbursement for them. The services or materials must be necessary because of a person's disability. They can not be costs that a person without a disability would have if she or he were to hold the same type of job. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1990, August), examples of IRWEs are the cost of wheelchairs, pacemakers, respirators, braces, and artificial limbs. Work-related equipment such as one-handed typewriters, electronic visual aids, and braille devices may also be deductible. Other costs such as attendant care needed to prepare for and go to or from work are often deductible as well. The cost of a job coach for a person has just recently been allowed as an IRWE.

Plan for Achieving Self Support (PASS). PASS is a work incentive program that enables a person with a disability to receive earned and unearned income and to set some or all of these funds aside for up to 48 months. The purpose of the program is to help individuals accumulate resources in order to pursue a specific work goal, such as "education, vocational training, or starting a business, or purchase of work-related equipment" (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1990, October, p. 3). Thus, the PASS program is a means of encouraging and empowering individuals to become financially self-supporting.

A PASS program must be in writing and must include a realistic work goal, a date for achieving the goal, a clear savings/spending plan, and a method for keeping track of the funds that are set aside. Social Security must approve an individual's PASS program. It is helpful to initiate a PASS prior to receiving transitional and/or supported employment services, but a PASS program can also be established after a person goes to work. The income and resources set aside under a plan are excluded from the SSI income and resource tests. SSI payments themselves cannot be set aside in a PASS, and individuals must have some type of resources or income other than the SSI check to establish a PASS.

SSDI Program Work Incentives. The SSDI program also has work incentives. As with SSI work incentives, impairment-related work expenses can be deducted from the earnings on which Substantial Gainful Activity (SGA) is calculated. Other work incentives include a trial work period, extended period of eligibility, and extended Medicare coverage.

The trial work period allows individuals with disabilities to test their ability to work, without fear of losing SSDI benefits. The trial period is for nine months of work, which need not be consecutive. During or after this time, if an individual demonstrates the ability to earn above the SGA limit of $500 a month, despite his or her disability, he or she may no longer be considered disabled by the Social Security Administration. Benefits would be discontinued three months later (considered a grace period).

The extended period of eligibility is an additional work incentive tied to the nine-month trial period. This incentive exists to ensure that the individual with a disability has sufficient time to develop the financial and occupational stability necessary in order to maintain independence. Basically, individuals can be reinstated to SSDI benefits if their earnings fall below the SGA level at any time during the extended period (36 months). Furthermore, individuals do not need to file a new application or have a new disability determination. Benefits are reinstated without a waiting period.

References

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1990, August). Impairment-related expenses are deductible. Social Security Information Items, p. 3. (Available from SSA, Office of Information, Room 4-J-10 West High Rise, 6401 Security Boulevard, Baltimore, MD 21235.)

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1990, October). Social security encourages a bridge to the workplace. Social Security News, pp. 2-3. (Available from SSA, Office of Information, Room 4-J-10 West High Rise, 6401 Security Boulevard, Baltimore, MD 21235.)

Sources of Information

For information about SSI and SSDI work incentives: Contact the Social Security Administration and ask for booklet Public Number 64-030 which contains information on the work incentives available in both programs. Telephone: 1-800-772-1213.

For information about PASS programs: Contact your local Social Security office.

Postsecondary Education And Training Opportunities

This article describes many of the postsecondary educational and training options available to youth with disabilities. The type of option an individual chooses to explore will, naturally, vary from person to person and will depend in large part on the nature and severity of the disability and the particular vocational interest that the individual has. Be aware that most of these options have eligibility or entrance requirements. These are best determined by contacting the organization in question and asking for more information and/or an appointment. Be sure to keep records of all correspondence and discussions with postsecondary education or training institutions.

Transition Programs Beginning in High School

As has been said, planning for transition to postsecondary education or employment after high school must begin during a student's high school years. New federal legislation (the Individuals with Disabilities Act, P.L. 101-476) requires that transition plans be included in a student's IEP by the time a student is aged 16 (or younger, when appropriate).

While still in high school, students with disabilities can take advantage of vocational education programs offered by the secondary school system. These programs are intended to provide students with marketable job skills and prepare them for employment. Additionally, there may be high school programs available that are designed to prepare students for careers requiring some education and/or training beyond high school. One such program is called Tech Prep.

Tech Prep is a course of study designed to assure that high school students acquire more technically-oriented knowledge and skills. This program is authorized by the Carl D. Perkins Act of 1990 and consists of two years of secondary school preceding graduation and two years of higher education following instruction received at the secondary level. The program develops proficiency in mathematics, science, communications, and technologies and is designed to lead to an associate degree or certificate in a specific career field (Council for Exceptional Children, 1991, p. 6).

Tech Prep can be implemented in a variety of ways and may be called by different names. One example is the 2+2 program (A. Halper, personal communication, June 7, 1991). In 2+2, students are allowed to earn credit at a community college for some courses they have taken in high school. An agreement is articulated ahead of time between the high school principal or vocational education supervisor and the Dean of Career Education at the community college. Students with disabilities who are in this program and who are successfully completing classwork will receive credits at the community college, as do students who do not have disabilities.

JTPA-funded Training Programs

In 1982, Congress passed the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA), P.L. 97-300, to replace and improve the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) program, as well as "to increase the role of private business and industry in the training and employment of disadvantaged youth and adults" (Sarkees & Scott, 1985, pp. 9-10). JTPA funds are awarded to states through the Governor's Office, which then allocates the monies to Private Industry Councils (PICs). The PICs are responsible for deciding what type of training will be offered within their service delivery area and for overseeing the activities of the JTPA-funded training programs within that area. Because the PICs, by law, must include representatives of local businesses, education agencies, and state and local governments, a partnership between the public and private sectors results.

The purpose of JTPA training programs is to prepare youth and unskilled adults for entry into the labor market. The target populations of the Act are economically disadvantaged individuals and other persons who face serious barriers to employment. Thus, youth with disabilities may be eligible to participate in a JTPA-funded training program either because they are economically disadvantaged -- income requirements are based on an individual's income, rather than the income of the family -- or because they have a mental or physical disability that "constitutes or results in a substantial handicap to employment" [29 U.S.C. 1503, Section 4(10)].

Local training programs using JTPA funds may provide services such as pre-employment training, job counseling, vocational training, remedial education and basic-skills training, literacy and bilingual training, job placement assistance, and work experience, including on-the-job training (discussed below). JTPA also funds summer youth employment programs. Clearly, many of these services would be useful to a youth with a disability who exits high school but who still needs additional job skills.

An individual with a disability who is interested in finding out whether he or she is eligible for training funded by JTPA monies can go to the local employment agency or a human services agency that provides the type of training he or she is interested in. In order to be eligible for funded training, individuals must be certified through the local area JTPA office. For details about eligibility requirements, contact the JTPA State Liaison person. (The telephone number of the person serving in this capacity in your state is available from the HEATH Resource Center.)

On-the-Job Training

On-the-job training (OJT) is short-term training that enables a person to work on a job site while learning the job duties from a co-worker or supervisor. This work may be paid or unpaid, and can lead to the trainee taking over the job as an employee of the company sponsoring the training.

Many training programs utilize this approach to providing young people -- with or without disabilities -- with job experience and training. Vocational rehabilitation agencies and those funded by JTPA, for example, support this type of placement for a young person by providing services or monetary incentives to employers who provide the OJT (Sarkees & Scott, 1985). Additionally, many large corporations offer OJT for those with disabilities. An example of this is IBM, which runs its program in conjunction with the National Technical Institute for the Deaf and Gallaudet University (Marks & Lewis, 1983). Many disability organizations coordinate OJT opportunities as well. The Association for Retarded Citizens (ARC), for example, runs a national on-the-job training program which locates jobs for individuals with mental retardation. More information about these programs can usually be obtained by contacting your State Office of Vocational Rehabilitation, your State Employment Office, or organizations such as ARC.

Internships and Apprenticeships

Internships are similar to on-the-job training. They are time-limited, paid or unpaid jobs which permit the intern to sample the type of work available in a general field. Many high school and community transition programs offer individuals the opportunity to participate in an internship prior to competitive employment. By participating in an internship, individuals can learn more about the job and has the opportunity to familiarize themselves with the work environment.

Apprenticeship programs have been an historical means of preparing competent and skilled workers. Apprenticeships offer individuals the opportunity to learn the skills necessary for an occupation by working under the supervision of experienced workers. These programs generally take from three to four years to complete, but participants are paid for their labor. In the beginning, wages may not be more than minimum wage, but by the end of the program, wages are usually nearly those earned by an experienced worker. Generally, the sponsor of the apprenticeship is a company or a group of companies, a public agency, or a union. Over 700 organizations are currently involved in apprenticeship programs.

Local unions, vocational education programs in the community, the State Office of Vocational Rehabilitation, and the State Employment Office are all sources of more information about apprenticeship opportunities. Each state also has a State Occupational Informational Coordinating Committee (overseen at the federal level by the National Occupational Informational Coordinating Committee). These committees, to differing degrees in each state, provide systems for individuals to obtain information about apprenticeships. The Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training also has regional offices throughout the United States. To locate the office serving your area, write or call the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, 200 Constitution Avenue N.W., Washington, DC 20210, (202) 535-0540.

Training Offered by Disability-Specific Organizations

Organizations such as the Arc (formerly the Association for Retarded Citizens), the United Cerebral Palsy Foundation (UCP), and others serving people with a specific disability may provide vocational assessment and training. The types of training provided vary, but the goals of the training are that individuals with disabilities will obtain employment and become as independent as possible. As an example, many regional offices of the Arc provide training in computer skills and other office skills to persons with mental retardation who have been referred to the Arc program. This training often leads to competitive employment for these individuals.

To find out more about disability-specific organizations operating in your state or local area, contact NICHCY for a state resource sheet.

Adult Education

Adult education programs are designed to provide instruction below the college level to any person sixteen years of age or older who is no longer being served by the public education system. There are many different programs available, and you can find them in a variety of settings. One setting of importance to youth seeking vocational training is an area vocational center. In many states, area vocational centers operate as part of the public school system. Secondary school students may receive vocational instruction in the area vocational center during the day, while instruction for adults in the community would generally be available there at night. Vocational courses may include training in such areas as health care, business education, home economics, industrial arts, marketing, or trades such as carpentry or automobile mechanic. The course of study might involve students in apprenticeships (discussed above) which can lead to certification in a trade or recognized occupation. Adult education programs may also be available to prepare individuals for GED tests or to teach English as a Second Language (ESL). Continuing education programs may also be offered under the auspices of adult education. However, continuing education is generally meant to provide personal enrichment rather than vocational training. For example, continuing education classes may be offered in areas such as cooking, gardening, or sewing.

Information about adult education programs -- whether they are intended as vocational training or personal enrichment -- can usually be obtained by contacting your local education agency.

Trade and Technical Schools

These schools are designed to prepare students for gainful employment in recognized occupations. Examples include occupations such as air conditioning technician, bank teller, dental assistant, data processor, electrician, medical secretary, surveyor, and welders. Vocational training is provided so that an individual can obtain skills in a specific area of interest or increase the level of skills he or she has already achieved. A course of study may take anywhere from two weeks to two years to complete, with the general entrance requirement of a GED or high school diploma. These schools typically place great importance on job placement for their graduates. If you are working with a high school counselor or a vocational counselor at the VR office in or near your community, one of these schools may be recommended to you as a way of getting the training you need.

Colleges and Career Education

Colleges offer an opportunity for individuals with disabilities to continue their education and earn tangible evidence of education such as a certificate or degree. Junior and community colleges offer a variety of courses which, upon successful completion of the prescribed courses, may lead to a Certificate or Associate's degree. Community colleges are publicly funded, have either no or low-cost tuition, and offer a wide-range of programs, including vocational and occupational courses. They exist in or near many communities; generally the only admissions requirement is a high school diploma or its equivalent. Junior colleges are usually privately supported, and the majority provide programs in the liberal arts field. Four year colleges and universities offer programs of study which lead to a Bachelor's degree after successful completion of four years of prescribed course work.

Disability-related support services. In order to take full advantage of postsecondary education and training in mainstream institutions, individuals with disabilities will want to find out about disability-related support services and classroom accommodations that the institution makes available. According to Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, an institution receiving federal funds may not exclude an individual from participation in or deny him or her the benefits of any program or activity the institution offers, solely because that individual has a disability. Because nearly all postsecondary institutions receive federal financial assistance of some kind, they are generally prepared to make accommodations and adaptations that are specific to the needs of an individual with a disability. Many college campuses have an office for Disabled Student Services or Special Services. Others have designated the Dean of Students or some other administrator to provide this information and to coordinate necessary services and accommodations. At vocational schools or other training programs, the person responsible for disability services can usually provide this information. Examples of support services include notetakers, interpreters, extended time for taking exams or completing coursework, or using a tape recorder or computer in class, pre-registration for courses, and specialized counseling.

There are also many publications that can tell you more about the policies and programs that individual colleges and universities have established to address the needs of students with disabilities. Consult the bibliography at the end of this TRANSITION SUMMARY, where several of these publications have been listed.

Financial aid. Another major question you may have regarding postsecondary education or training opportunities is the availability of financial aid to help pay for tuition and living expenses. Obtaining financial aid can be a complex process, because laws are amended and eligibility requirements, policies, and disbursement of government funds change each year. Most money called "financial aid" is available to those studying only above the high school level (thus, financial aid is usually not available for Adult Education). The student must usually demonstrate the ability to benefit from the education or training in order to receive traditional financial aid. Contact the HEATH Resource Center to obtain a free copy of the Resource Paper entitled Financial Aid for Students with Disabilities (1994). This paper provides an overview of the financial aid process and describes the various types of financial aid available. Attention is given to those expenses considered disability-related, and suggestions are made about ways in which some of those expenses can be met. There is also a discussion of the services that may be provided by the Vocational Rehabilitation System. Another useful resource is Schlachter and Weber's (1994) Financial Aid for the Disabled and Their Families: 1993-1994. This book describes hundreds of financial aid programs established primarily or exclusively for individuals with disabilities and their families.

Summary

There are many avenues that youth with disabilities can take to obtain training after high school. Training may be vocational in nature, such as what is offered through JTPA-funded training programs, on-the-job training opportunities, apprenticeships, adult education, or a trade and technical school. Through these vocationally-oriented programs, youth in transition can obtain the job skills they need to pursue and secure employment. For individuals who are interested in more academic preparation for employment, junior colleges, community colleges, and four-year colleges and universities are valuable sources of education. The decisions an individual with a disability makes about what type of training to pursue and what type of institution to attend will vary depending on that person's career interests, what type of job skills he or she has upon leaving high school, and the nature and severity of the disability. Students pursuing training and education after high school should be aware that most postsecondary institutions -- whether they are vocational or academic in nature -- can make accommodations that take into account the special needs of individual learners. With accommodations to their special needs, students with disabilities are better able to learn and master the skills they need for employment.

References

Council for Exceptional Children. (1991). Federal policy on vocational education for exceptional students: Q & A guide to the Carl D. Perkins Act of 1990. Reston, VA: Author. (Available from the Council for Exceptional Children, 1920 Association Drive, Reston, VA 22091-1589.)

Financial aid for students with disabilities. (1989). Washington, DC: HEATH Resource Center.

Job Training Partnership Act, 29 U.S.C. 1503, Section 4(10).

Marks, E., & Lewis, A. (1983). Job hunting for the disabled. Woodbury, NY: Barron's Educational Series, Inc.

Myers, J., & Werner-Scott, E. (1989). Getting skilled, getting ahead. Princeton, NJ: Peterson's Guides.

Sarkees, M.D., & Scott, J.L. (1986). Vocational special needs (2nd edition). Homewood, IL: American Technical Publishers, Inc. (Available from American Technical Publishers, Inc., 1155 W. 175th Street, Homewood, IL 60430. Telephone: 1-800-323-3471.)

Schlachter, G.A., & Weber, R.D. (1994). Financial aid for the disabled and their families: 1993-1994. Redwood City, CA: Reference Service Press. (Available from Reference Service Press, 10 Twin Dolphin Drive, Suite B-308, Redwood City, CA 94065. Telephone: (415) 594-0743.)

U.S. Department of Education. (1985). Directory of resources for adults with disabilities. Washington, DC: Division of Adult Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education.

Other Avenues To Employment

There are many avenues that lead to stable, satisfying employment. Other articles in this TRANSITION SUMMARY have discussed how and where to obtain training that leads to employment. This article addresses other avenues a youth with a disability can take to employment, learning and growing along the way.

For young people with disabilities, early job experiences are vital learning situations wherein they gain good work habits such as punctuality, responsibility, insight into appropriate behaviors, and standards of personal grooming. As such, initial jobs need not always place the individual on a career ladder. Sometimes it is useful to take jobs as stepping stones in one's training, rather than as the final step in employment. Temporary work can be one such stepping stone. Employers often have trouble finding a person to take a job that will only last several weeks or months. For a youth with a disability, a temporary job may offer the opportunity to get valuable work experience, earn wages, and develop a work history. Part-time work is a similar stepping stone in many ways. Part-time employment offers many advantages for persons who need to attend school part of the day, or who may be uncertain as to their work stamina or tolerance. Job-sharing is another stepping stone, where two workers share the responsibilities of one full-time job. All of these examples can offer individuals meaningful employment that suits their schedule or their mental or physical abilities. These are also excellent ways by which to enter an organization, establish a reputation as a worker, and possibly move into a full-time job when one becomes available or is desired.

Programs also exist that are designed to provide experience outside of a traditional classroom. Examples are volunteering and international exchange programs. Both types of programs offer personal enrichment to young adults and enhance their independence, self-advocacy skills, and their ability to make informed choices about further education and careers. Volunteering enables a student or adult with a disability to develop a work history and can lead to paid employment. Some transition programs provide opportunities for young adults with disabilities to have volunteer experiences in several career areas as part of career exploration and selection. There may also be a volunteer organizatino in your community, county, or state which can provide you with information about volunteer opportunities. At the national level, VOLUNTEER: The National Center for Citizen Involvement has been developing projects on the use of volunteers who have disabilities; this organization may be able to provide information specific to your locality. Contact VOLUNTEER at P.O. Box 1807, Boulder, CO 80306. Also at the national level is AmeriCorps, a federal agency that runs the VISTA program (Volunteers in Service to America). VISTA can be contacted, toll-free, at (800) 424-8867 for information on recruitment and current projects, as well as information about state and regional offices. AmeriCorps' number is: 1-800-94-A-CORPS.

International exchange programs can also serve as stepping stones for young people with disabilities. While the programs cannot be considered employment, they nevertheless are personally enriching and, for a young person with a disability, lead to increased independence. There are two general types of international exchange programs: educational exchanges and international workcamps. Educational exchange programs enable young adults to live, study, or volunteer in another country while living with a host family or with other participants in a dormitory. International workcamps bring persons with disabilities and persons without disabilities together to work on community projects in host countries. Individuals with disabilities have participated successfully in both kinds of international programs. For more information about exchange programs, contact Mobility International USA, P.O. Box 10767, Eugene, OR 97440, (503) 343-1284 (v/TDD) and/or The U.S. Committee of the International Christian Youth Exchange (ICYE), 134 West 26th Street, New York, NY 10001, (212) 206-7307.

The military may also be a viable postsecondary options for many young adults with disabilities. Some individuals with learning disabilities, for example, "can benefit from the highly structured, repetitive, and physically active regime of military life" (Scheiber & Talpers, 1987, p. 64). However, in order to pursue a career in the military, individuals must meet the qualifications of the specific branch of interest (e.g., the Navy). A student and/or parent should talk to a recruiter in the particular branch of interest prior to graduation in order to find out about requirements. It is also important to know that Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act does not cover uniformed personnel branches of the military; therefore, no particular accommodations are made regarding a person's disability unless that person is a civilian employee.

There are also opportunities for civilian service employees in military installations. The majority of these positions are in an administrative or support staff capacity. These provide opportunities for persons skilled in the areas of accounting, computer technology, contracting, and clerical duties. The best avenue for a person with a disability to take in order to obtain employment as a civilian is to be certified by the Vocational Rehabilitation System for Schedule A employment. The person may then apply directly to the federal government agency in which he or she is interested, including millitary installations around the nation and the world. Each installation in the military has to adhere to equal opportunity standards for employees in civilian positions.

Entrepreneurship is a nontraditional avenue many individuals with disabilities have taken to employment. Rather than work for someone else, they decided to start a business of their own. For some persons, the focus of the business grew out of a hobby or a personal interest. An example of this is Don Krebs, who became a quadriplegic as a result of a waterskiing accident. After his recovery, Don searched for adaptive equipment to allow him to return to waterskiing, a sport he loved, and in the process recognized the great need for adaptive recreation equipment. Using money from SSDI and his Plan for Achieving Self Support (PASS), Don started Access to Recreation, a mail order company specializing in adaptive recreation equipment.

Some individuals with disabilities who have successfully created their own business began with the desire to work out of their home. Betty, for instance, is mobility-impaired and uses a wheelchair. She operates a direct mail order business from her home and sells eyeglass frames wholesale to optometrists and opticians (Marks & Lewis, 1983).

Other people with disabilities have become involved in businesses their parents have created. Laura and Charles, for example, have a son who is severely mentally retarded. Concerned about Harold's employment prospects, Laura and Charles joined forces several years ago with two other families whose children are mentally retarded. Together, the parents purchased ten vending machines which they then situated in strategic locations. The young adults, who now range in age from eighteen to twenty-five, are responsible for tending to the machines, which includes restocking them with sodas, retrieving the coins and rolling them up for deposit in the bank, and reporting any machine malfunctions to their parents. Although it took the families several months to identify the most lucrative spots to place the vending machines, the amount of income generated by this small business has surprised them all.

Starting and maintaining a business is a serious enterprise. The ingenuity, determination, and stamina of participants are important factors in making for success or failure. However, operating a small business can offer many advantages to individuals with disabilities, such as minimizing transportation concerns, setting one's own work hours, and having the freedom to modify the job in whatever way is necessary to get the job done most efficiently, given the personality and disability of the individual. Persons who are interested in starting a business can contact the Small Business Administration for assistance and advice. SBA can also help you secure a loan through a bank or other commerical lender. SBA operates more than 100 local offices across the country. To find out if an office exists in your vicinity, consult your telephone directory or contact the SBA central office at 409 3rd Street, S.W., Information Center, Room 100, Washington, DC 20416, telephone number (202) 606-4000 (in the DC area) or 1-800-827-5722.

References

Marks, E., & Lewis, A. (1983). Job hunting for the disabled. Woodbury, NY: Barron's Educational Series, Inc. (Available from Barron's Educational Series, Inc., 113 Crossways Park Drive, Woodbury, NY 11797.)

Scheiber, B., & Talpers, J. (1987). Unlocking potential: College and other choices for learning disabled people: A step-by-step guide. Bethesda, MD: Adler & Adler. (Available from Adler & Adler, 4550 Montgomery Avenue, Bethesda, MD 20814.)

Taking Action

This TRANSITION SUMMARY has presented information about many different postsecondary education and training options, with the ultimate goal being employment for young people with disabilities. This article presents suggestions for how students with disabilities can work with their families and school professionals to put together an action plan for transition. The key words here are plan and action. There's a saying that goes "Plan your work, and then work your plan." Planning requires action -- information gathering, self-assessment, weighing of alternatives, decision-making. "Working the plan" also requires action -- following through on decisions that have been made, evaluating progress, gathering more information and making new decisions, as necessary.

Leaving secondary school is an eventuality that all students must face. Under the IDEA (P.L. 101-476), preparing for this transition has become more than a personal choice. Each student's Individualized Education Program (IEP) must now include a statement of the transition services needed by the student, beginning no later than age 16. The transition plan must also include, where appropriate, a statement of interagency responsibilities or linkages (or both) before the student leaves the school setting.

In Junior High School: Start Transition Planning

In High School: Define Career/Vocational Goals

If you have decided to pursue postsecondary education and training prior to employment, consider these suggestions:

In your last year of secondary school, contact VR and/or SSA to determine eligibility for services or benefits.

After High School: Obtain Your Goals

Remember that educational institutions and employers can make reasonable accommodations to your special needs. Speak out for yourself, work to achieve your goals!

In Conclusion...

Transition from the secondary school system to the world of adult life and adult responsibilities is a complex time for all young people. Young adults with disabilities and their families often find this time particularly challenging. To achieve the end goal of transition -- which, according to Halpern (1985) is to live successfully in one's community -- requires much planning, consideration, exploration, and self-determination. Young people with disabilities must make decisions and take action in regards to three critical areas in their lives which are likely to undergo a transition as they become adults. These areas are: their residence, or where they will live in the community, their personal life, which involves self-esteem, maturity, family, friends, and intimate relationships, and employment, which requires appropriate training and education, job search skills, and knowledge of important employee behaviors (Halpern, 1985). Successfully addressing these three issues is what will lead young people -- those with disabilities and those without -- to a successful life as an adult in the community.

This TRANSITION SUMMARY has focused upon the latter issue, namely employment. The issue has provided students and families with an overview about educational and training options that exist to help youth in transition prepare for employment. It has been designed as an introduction to the opportunities available to individuals with disabilities when they leave the public school system, as well as an overview of the adult service systems with which they may interact. The resources mentioned within the TRANSITION SUMMARY and those listed under the Bibliography are ones that students and their parents can use to gather more complete information about the most appropriate options for them. It is strongly recommended that both students and their parents begin to explore these options as early in a student's life as possible, certainly by age 16.

References

Halpern, A.S. (1985). Transition: A look at the foundations. Exceptional Children, 51 (6), 479-486.

FYI: Information Resources from NICHCY'S Database

The following information was selected from numerous resources abstracted in NICHCY's database. If you know of a group which provides information about transition planning to families, professionals, or the general public regarding youth with disabilities, or developing materials and programs in this area, please send this information to NICHCY for our resource collection and database. We will appreciate this information and will share it with others who request it.

You can obtain many of the documents listed below through your local library. Whenever possible, we have included the publisher's address or some other source in case the publication is not available in your area. The organizations listed are only a few of the many that provide various services and information programs about transition services and self-determination for families and professionals.

Additional publications and information are also available from the clearinghouses listed, state and local parent groups, and state and local affiliates of many major disability organizations. Please note that these addresses are subject to change without prior notice. If you experience difficulty in locating these documents or organizations, or if you would like additional assistance, please contact NICHCY. Finally, you may find NICHCY's State Resource Sheet for your state or territory helpful in contacting other resources of information.

You may obtain copies of the laws discussed by writing to your Congressional Representative. Federal Regulations are available by writing to: Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. There is usually a charge for documents. It is important that you include the title of the regulations that you are seeking.

Bibliography

BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, MAGAZINES

Adults with disabilities... How to get your GED diploma. Washington, DC: The GED Testing Service and HEATH Resource Center. (Available from the American Council on Education Distribution Center, P.O. Box 261, Annapolis Junction, MD 20701. Telephone: (301) 604-9073.)

Allen, T.E., Rawlings, B.W., & Schildroth, A.N. (1989). Deaf students and the school-to-work transition. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. (Available from Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company, P.O. Box 10624, Baltimore, MD 21285.)

American Council on Education. (1992). GED test accommodations for candidates with specific learning disabilities. Washington, DC: Author. (Available from the American Council on Education Distribution Center, P.O. Box 261, Annapolis Junction, MD 20701. Telephone: (301) 604-9073.)

Anderson, W., Chitwood, S., & Hayden, D. (1990). Negotiating the special education maze: A guide for parents and teachers. Rockville, MD: Woodbine House. (Available from Woodbine House, 6510 Bells Mill Road, Bethesda, MD 20817. Telephone: 1-800-843-7323; (301) 897-3570.)

Aune, E., Johnson, D., Baggett, D., Aase, S., Carlson, S., & Kroeger, S. (1994). Career development and employment for college students and graduates with disabilities: An annotated bibliography. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota.

Bullis, M., & Gaylord-Ross, R. (1991). Moving on: Transitions for youth with behavioral disorders. Reston, VA: The Council for Exceptional Children. (Available from the Council for Exceptional Children, 1920 Association Drive, Reston, VA 22091-1589.)

Callanan, C.R. (1990). Since Owen: A parent-to-parent guide for care of the disabled child. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. (Available from The John Hopkins University Press, Hampton Station, Baltimore, MD 21211. Telephone: 1-800-537-5487.)

DeStefano, L., & Snauwaert, D. (1989). A value-critical approach to transition policy analysis. Champaign, IL: College of Education, University of Illinois. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 310 610)

Disabled student services: A specialty in postsecondary education. (1988). Columbus, OH: Association on Higher Education and Disabilities. (For 1 free copy, contact AHEAD, P.O. Box 21192, Columbus, OH 43221. Telephone: 1-800-247-7752 (Voice); (614) 488-4972 (Voice/TT).)

Jamison, S.D., Goldberg, P., & Goldberg, M. (1992). Bibliography of supported employment and transition resources. Minneapolis: Supported Employment Parent Training Technical Assistance Project, Pacer Center. (Available from Pacer Center, 4826 Chicago Avenue, Minneapolis, MN 55417-1055. Telephone: (612) 827-2966.)

Johnson, A.A. (1994). Shoot for the moon. Saunderstown, RI: Saunderstown Press. (Available from Saunderstown Press, 1600 Boston Neck Road, Saunderstown, RI 02874.)

Kohler, P.D., Johnson, J.R., Chadsey-Rusch, J., & Rusch, F.R. (1993). Transition from school to adult life: Foundations, best practices, and research directions. Champaign, IL: Transition Research Institute. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 358 607)

Leach, L., & Harmon, A. (1993). Annotated bibliography on secondary special education and transitional services (Vol. 8). Champaign, IL: Transition Research Institute. (Available from Transition Institute at Illinois, College of Education, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 113 Children's Research Center, 51 Gerty Drive, Champaign, IL 61820. Telephone: (217) 333-2325.

Lehr, S. (1986). After school...then what? The transition to adulthood. Syracuse, NY: Federal for Children with Special Needs and the Center on Human Policy. (Available from the Technical Assistance for Parent Programs (TAPP) Project, 95 Berkeley Street, Second Floor, Boston, MA 02116. Telephone: (617) 482-2915.)

Lehr, S., & Taylor, S.J. (1986). Roots and wings: A manual about self-advocacy. Boston: TAPP Project. (Available from Technical Assistance for Parent Programs (TAPP) Project, 95 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 02116. Telephone: (617) 482-2915.)

Lipkin, M. (1993). The schoolsearch guide to colleges with programs or services for students with learning disabilities. Belmont, MA: Schoolsearch Press. (Available from Schoolsearch Press, 127 Marsh Street, Belmont, MA 02178. Telephone: (617) 489-5785.)

Mangrum II, C.T., & Strichart, S.S. (Eds.). (1994). Peterson's guide to colleges with programs for learning disabled students. Princeton, NJ: Peterson's Guides. (Available from Peterson's Guide, P.O. Box 2123, Princeton, NJ 08543-2123. Telephone: 1-800-338-3282; (609) 243-9111.)

Matuszak, T., Langel, P., Goldberg, M., & Goldberg, P. (1992). Beginning the between: Planning for the transition from high school to adult life. Minneapolis, MN: PACER Center. (Available from Pacer Center, 4826 Chicago Avenue, Minneapolis, MN 55417-1055. Telephone: (612) 827-2966.)

McBroom, L., Tedder, N., & Kang, J. (1991). Youth with visual disabilities: Transition from school to work. Mississippi State, MS: Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Blindness and Low Vision. (Available from Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Blindness and Low Vision, P.O. Box 6189, Mississippi State, MS 39762.)

McBroom, L., Sikka, A., & Jones, L. (1994). The transition to college for students with visual impairments. Mississippi State, MS: Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Blindness and Low Vision. (Available from Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Blindness and Low Vision, P.O. Box 6189, Mississippi State, MS 39762.)

Mclouglin, C.S., Garner, J.B., & Callahan, M.J. (Eds.). (1987). Getting employed, staying employed: Job development and training for persons with severe handicaps. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. (Available from Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc., P.O. Box 10624, Baltimore, MD 21285-0624. Telephone: 1-800-638-3775.)

Modrcin, M.J., Coleman, C., & Robison, J. (1989). Youth in transition: A description of selected transition programs serving adolescents with emotional disabilities. Portland, OR: Portland State University, National Clearinghouse on Family Support and Children's Mental Health. (Available from Regional Research Institute for Human Services, Publications, P.O. Box 751, Portland State University, Portland, OR 97207-0751. Telephone: 1-800-628-1696.)

Moery, K. (1993). After high school...? Building on today for tomorrow. Designing and implementing a community-based, family-centered transition planning project: A manual for professionals, parents, and youth with disabilities. Chicago, IL: Family Resource Center on Disabilities. (Available from the Family Resource Center on Disabilities, 20 East Jackson Boulevard, Room 900, Chicago, IL 60604. Telephone: (213) 939-3513; 1-800-952-4199.)

Mueller, J. (1990). The workplace workbook: An illustrated guide to job accommodation and assistive technology. Chicago: National Easter Seal Society. (Available from Publications Department, National Easter Seal Society, 230 W. Monroe Street, Suite 1800, Chicago, IL 60606. Telephone: 1-800-221-6827; (312) 726-6200.)

Murphy, M. (1990). Roadmap to transition for young adults with severe disabilities. San Jose, CA: Santa Clara County Office of Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 319 201)

Nisbet, J. (Ed.). (1992). Natural supports in school, at work, and in the community for people with severe disabilities. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. (Available from Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc., P.O. Box 10624, Baltimore, MD 21285-0624. Telephone: 1-800-638-3775.)

Pueschel, S.M. (1990). A parent's guide to Down syndrome: Toward a brighter future. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. (Available from Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc., P.O. Box 10624, Baltimore, MD 21285-0624. Telephone: 1-800-638-3775.)

Rabby, R., & Croft, D. (1995). Take charge: A strategic guide for blind job seekers. Boston: National Braille Press. (Available in print, braille, and cassette from National Braille Press, 88 St. Stephen Street, Boston, MA 02115. Telephone: 1-800-548-7323.)

Riches, V. (1993). Standards of work performance: A functional assessment and training manual for training people with disabilities for employment. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. (Available from Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc., P.O. Box 10624, Baltimore, MD 21285-0624. Telephone: 1-800-638-3775.)

Rusch, F.R. (1990). Supported employment: Models, methods, and issues. Florence, KY: Wadsworth Publishing. (Available from Wadsworth Publishing, 7625 Empire Drive, Florence, KY 41042. Telephone: (606) 525-2230.)

Rusch, F.R., DeStefano, L., Chadsey-Rusch, J., Phelps, L.A., & Szymanski, E. (1992). Transition from school to adult life: Models, linkages, and policy. Florence, KY: Wadsworth Publishing. (Available from Wadsworth Publishing, 7625 Empire Drive, Florence, KY 41042. Telephone: (606) 525-2230.)

Sowers, J.A., & Powers, L. (1991). Vocational preparation and employment of students with physical and multiple disabilities. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. (Available from Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc., P.O. Box 10624, Baltimore, MD 21285-0624. Telephone: 1-800-638-3775.)

Storms, J. (1993). Transition from high school to adult life: How to make it less like a long football pass and more like a baton passing between two relay runners! Eugene, OR: Western Regional Resource Center. (Available from the Western Regional Resource Center, 1268 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-1268. Telephone: (503) 346-5641.)

Turnbull, H.R., Turnbull, A.P., Bronicki, G.J., Summers, J.A., & Roeder-Gordon, C. (1989). Disability and the family: A guide to decisions for adulthood. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. (Available from Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company, P.O. Box 10624, Baltimore, MD 21285-0624. Telephone: 1-800-638-3775.)

U.S. Department of Education. (1992, June). A summary of existing legislation affecting persons with disabilities (Publication No. ED-OSERS 92-8). Washington, DC: Author. (Available from the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, Clearinghouse on Disability Information, Washington, DC 20202-2425.)

Wehman, P. (1992). Life beyond the classroom: Transition strategies for young people with disabilities. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. (Available from Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc., P.O. Box 10624, Baltimore, MD 21285-0624. Telephone: 1-800-638-3775.)

Wehman, P., Moon, M.S., & McCarthy, P. (1986). Transition from school to adulthood for youth with severe handicaps. Denver, CO: Love Publishing Co. (Available from Love Publishing Company, 1777 South Bellaire Street, Denver, CO 80222. Cost: 1-9 copies are $3.00 each. Telephone: (303) 757-2579.)

Wehman, P., Wood, W., Everson, J.M., Goodwyn, R., & Conley, S. (1988). Vocational education for multihandicapped youth with cerebral palsy. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. (Available from Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc., P.O. Box 10624, Baltimore, MD 21285-0624. Telephone: 1-800-638-3775.)

A world of options for the 90's: A guide to international educational exchange, community service and travel for persons with disabilities. (1990). Eugene, OR: Mobility International USA. (Available from MIUSA, P.O. Box 10767, Eugene, OR 97440. Telephone: (503) 343-1284.)

After high school, what's next? Planning with students who have substantial learning disabilities. (1990).

Education for employment: A guide to postsecondary vocational education for students with disabilities. (1986).

Financial aid for students with disabilities. (1989).

Getting LD students ready for college. (1990).

Students who are deaf or hard of hearing in postsecondary education. (1990).

How to choose a career... and a career school.

How to choose a college: Guide for the student with a disability. (1991).

Information from HEATH. Newsletter published three times a year. For free subscription, contact HEATH Resource Center.

Learning disabled adults in postsecondary education. (1987).

Make the most of your opportunities: A guide to postsecondary education for adults with handicaps. (1989).

Resource directory (1991). Contains over 150 annotated references and resources for education and training after high school.

Resources for adults with learning disabilities. (1995).

Transition resource guide. (1992).

Vocational rehabilitation services: A postsecondary student consumer's guide. (1989).

Young adults with learning disabilities and other special needs: Guide for selecting postsecondary transition programs. (1990).

Organizations

TRANSITION AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION INFORMATION RESOURCES AND CLEARINGHOUSES

Association on Higher Education and Disabilities (AHEAD) - P.O. Box 21192, Columbus, OH 43221. Telephone: 1-800-247-7752 (Voice); (614) 488-4972 (Voice/TT).

Clearinghouse on Disability Information - Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS), Room 3132, Switzer Bldg., 330 C Street SW, Washington, DC 20202-2524. Telephone: (202) 205-8241 (V/TT).

ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Counseling - Ohio State University, Center on Education and Training for Employment, 1900 Kenny Rd., Columbus, OH 43210-1090. Telephone: (614) 292-4353; 1-(800) 848-4815.

ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education - Council for Exceptional Children, 1920 Association Drive, Reston, VA 22091-1589. Telephone: 1-800-328-0272; (703) 264-9474.

National Center for Research in Vocational Education (NCRVE) - NCRVE, University of California at Berkeley, 2150 Shattuck Avenue, Berkeley, CA 94704-1306. Telephone: (415) 642-4004.

National Center for Youth with Disabilities (NYCD) - NYCD, University of Minnesota, Box 721, 420 Delaware Street S.E., Minneapolis, MN 55455. Telephone: 1-(800) 333-6293 (Voice); (612) 626-2825; (612) 624-3939 (TT).

National Clearinghouse on Postsecondary Education for Individuals with Disabilities (HEATH Resource Center) - One Dupont Circle, Suite 800, Washington, DC 20036-1193. Telephone: 1-(800) 544-3284 (Voice/TT); (202) 939-9320 (In D.C. metropolitan area).

National Rehabilitation Information Center (NARIC) - NARIC, 8455 Colesville Road, Suite 935, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Telephone: 1-(800) 227-0216 (Voice/TT); (301) 588-9284 (Voice/TT) (in MD).

OTHER NATIONAL INFORMATION RESOURCES

American Vocational Association (AVA) - AVA, 1410 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Telephone: (703) 683-3111; 1-(800) 826-9972. The following organizations are associated with the AVA:

• National Association of Vocational Assessment in Education (NAVAE)
• National Association of Special Needs State Administrators (NASNSA)
• National Association of Vocational Education Special Needs Personnel (NAVESNP)
• Special Needs Division (SND)

Beach Center on Families and Disability, Bureau of Child Research, University of Kansas, 3111 Haworth Hall, Lawrence, KS 66045. Telephone: (913) 864-7600.

Division of Career Development (DCD) - Council for Exceptional Children, 1920 Association Drive, Reston, VA 22091-1589. Telephone: (703) 620-3660.

Helen Keller National Center - Technical Assistance Center (TAC), 111 Middle Neck Road, Sands Point, NY 11050-1299. Telephone: (516) 944-8900.

National Industries for the Blind - 524 Hamburg Turnpike, CN969, Wayne, NJ 07474-0969. Telephone: (201) 595-9200.

National Industries for the Severely Handicapped - 2235 Cedar Lane, Vienna, VA 22180. Telephone: (703) 560-6800 or (703) 560-6512 (TDD).

National Restaurant Association - A. Philip Nelan, Director of Employment of Handicapped, National Restaurant Association, 1200 17th Street N.W., Washington, DC 20036. Telephone: (202) 331-5988.

National Transition Network, Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota, 6 Pattee Hall, 150 Pillsbury Drive S.E., Minneapolis, MN 55455. Telephone: (612) 624-1062.

Office of Special Populations, University of Illinois, 345 Education Bldg., 1310 S. 6th Street, Champaign, IL 61820. Telephone: (217) 333-0807.

Parents Advocating Vocational Education (PAVE) - PAVE, 6316 S. 12th Street, Tacoma, WA 98465. Telephone: (206) 565-2266; 1-(800) 572-7368 (in WA).

Parent Education Advocacy Training Center (PEATC) - PEATC, 10340 Democracy Lane, Suite 206, Fairfax, VA 22030-2518 Telephone: (703) 691-7826.

People First International - P.O. Box 12642, Salem, OR 97309. Telephone: (503) 362-0336 or (503) 588-5288.

President's Committee on Employment of Persons with Disabilities (PCEPD) - PCEPD, 1331 F Street N.W., Washington, DC 20004-1107. Telephone: (202) 376-6200 (Voice); (202) 376-6205 (TT).

Technical Assistance for Parent Programs (TAPP) - TAPP, Federation of Children with Special Needs, 95 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 02116. Telephone: (617) 482-2915 (Voice/TT); 1-(800) 331-0688 (in MA).

Transition Institute at Illinois, College of Education, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 113 Children's Research Center, 51 Gerty Drive, Champaign, IL 61820. Telephone: (217) 333-2325.

Virginia Commonwealth University Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Supported Employment (RRTC) - RRTC, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1314 W. Main Street, Richmond, VA 23284-2011.

Transition Summary is published once each year. In addition, NICHCY disseminates other materials and can respond to individual inquiries. Single copies of NICHCY materials and information services are provided free of charge. For further information and assistance, or to receive a NICHCY Publications List, contact NICHCY, P.O. Box 1492, Washington, DC 20013, or call 1-800-695-0285 (Voice/TT).

NICHCY thanks our Project Officer, Dr. Sara Conlon, at the Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education, for her time in reading and reviewing this document. We also thank the following individuals for their thoughtful review and comments on this issue and for providing information related to transition: Arline Halper, Department of Teacher Preparation and Special Education, the George Washington University; Deidre Hayden, Parent Education Advocacy Training Center (PEATC); Dorsey Hiltenbrand, Department of Student Services and Special Education, Fairfax County Public Schools; and Dr. Pat Sitlington, Iowa State Department of Special Education. We also would like to thank all the staff at the HEATH Resource Center for their contributions to researching and writing this document, especially Rhona Hartman and Tracy Murray.

PROJECT STAFF

This document was developed by Interstate Research Associates, Inc., pursuant to Cooperative Agreement #H030A00002 with the Office of Special Education Programs of the United States Department of Education. The contents of this document do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Department of Education, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

This information is in the public domain unless otherwise indicated. Readers are encouraged to copy and share it, but please credit the National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities. Your comments and suggestions for TRANSITION SUMMARY are welcomed. Please share your ideas and feedback by writing the Editor.

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